Saturday, August 31, 2019

Family’s Influence on a Child’s Educational Success Essay

The family is a key element in every person’s life; they have the greatest impact on a child’s socialization (Macionis 70). Socialization is a learned behavior that remains with a person his entire life. Family influences nearly every aspect of children’s life, including their education. Increasing evidence indicates that â€Å"schools are not solely responsible for promoting our young people’s academic success; rather, families must be engaged in helping youths develop the knowledge and skills they need to function in tomorrow’s workplace† (Israel 43). Therefore, the question is not whether parents influence education, but rather how and to what extent they do. A variety of explanations exist, including the size of the family, the parenting techniques, and the family’s economic status. Read more:  Factors that influence child development essay Why do some parents become involved in their children’s elementary and secondary education? Three major constructs are believed to be central to parents’ basic involvement decisions. First, a parents’ role construction defines parents’ beliefs about what they are supposed to do in their children’s education and appears to establish the basic range of activities that parents construe as important, necessary, and permissible for their own actions with and on behalf of children. Second, parents’ sense of efficacy for helping their children succeed in school focuses on the extent to which parents believe that through their involvement they can exert positive influence on their children’s educational outcomes. Third, general invitations, demands, and opportunities for involvement refer to parents’ perceptions that the child and school want them to be involved. However, even well-designed school programs inviting involvement will meet with only limited success if they do not address issues of parental role construction and parental sense of efficacy for helping children succeed in school. One theory suggests that the chief reason why a student’s family life affects his/her education is based on the size of the family. More specifically, it suggests that those coming from a family with fewer children perform better academically than those coming from a family with many children. One main reason for this is attributed to the â€Å"dilution of familial resources  available to children in large families and a concentration of such resources in small ones† (Blake 11). For example, in families with many children the parents have less time, less emotional and physical energy, less attention to give, and less ability to interact with children as individuals (Blake 11). Another reason that attention may be diluted is because of the many siblings. Often the mother is pregnant or recovering from pregnancy, which lessens her ability to care for the children. In addition, money is also often diluted. Blake says of that: This type of dilution involves not only the parents’ treatment of individual children–the ability to provide personal living space, cultural advantages such as travel, specialized instruction such as music lessons, specialized medical or dental care, as well as continuous and advanced schooling–but, as well, to provide settings the advantages of which are not divisible: living in a desirable neighborhood, or having a wide range of excellent reading material or recorded music in the house. (11) This suggests that children coming from a poor background are already at an educational disadvantage, possibly even before any formal schooling occurs. Travel enables a child to become a more cosmopolitan person and teaches children about the different cultures of the world. Music teaches dedication and helps with memorization skills. Other problems are associated with large families as well. A study by Lori Heise and Jane Roberts showed that children from large families don’t interact with others outside the family group as much as those in a smaller family, which can limit their understanding of certain social roles (Blake 11). It also places them at a disadvantage in school, where they make not have many friends or feel â€Å"left out.† This can lead to poor grades. This is so because the child may become depressed and find it hard to focus on schoolwork. Without friends to greet them, many times the child chooses not to even go to school. In addition, in families where lots of children are around, the intellectual level may be more â€Å"childlike,† so kids aren’t exposed to adult conversation,  vocabulary, and interests (Blake 11). The children spend most of their time playing with other children. In a family with one or few children, the child often has no other choice than to play with their parent/s. Similarly, the older siblings may often baby-sit or be treated as the â€Å"adult figure,† meaning that the parents are not as involved. The older children are often expected to help take care of his or her brothers or sisters. The parents are not home as often when a babysitter is available. Having a large family can also lead to financial burden and in turn a burden on the child’s academic success. It is often thought that income does not affect one’s education until college; after all, education until that point is free. Studies have shown otherwise. It was found that only-child boys were twice as likely to graduate from high school as boys from families of seven or more, and the same holds true for girls (Blake 41). Of the graduates, there is again a large gap between the two groups for college attendance (meaning that children without siblings are much more likely to attend college than those from large families). However, the distinction is not as large as in high school graduation rates. Once in college, family size has a relatively small effect on the number of years of college schooling a student receives (Blake 45). This indicates that the higher the level of schooling, the less family size is influential. Blake suggests that this is due to the many from large families who drop out of school and who are retained multiple times (Blake 45). One study shows that students coming from a small family do better on achievement test. Twenty-seven percent of boys in grades 1-5 with five siblings or more scored below average on these tests. Compare that number to the twenty percent of boys in the same grade level who were only children (Blake 262). As the number of siblings in the family increased, his or her score on the test decreased. Having many brothers and sisters could also be seen as beneficial to students, especially if a child is the youngest. Parents have often graduated twenty years prior to when their children are attending school.  Therefore, they may not remember the material in order to help their children. Older brothers and sisters, on the other hand, would be more familiar with the subjects and could tutor their siblings. Therefore, students could improve by having a large family. While this theory of family size affecting one’s education is valid and holds true in many cases, it is not solid enough to be the sole explanation. A second explanation as to why family plays such a large role in education is parenting techniques. Problems of school adjustment such as academic failure, underachievement, and disciplinary problems often arise from a combination of information-processing difficulties, attention-deficit disorders, school or performance anxiety, and low motivation. These problems in turn have been linked to specific domains of family life (e.g., family conflict, communication, and organization). (Medway and Cafferty 137) Studies have shown that many of the problems that children have in schools are associated with different parenting styles. Learning disabilities, poor task orientation, attention deficits, and low academic achievement can be caused by an unstable family life, where conflicts are handled through threats, counter-threats, and poor communication (Medway and Cafferty 138). Parents of children with disabilities are found to be more authoritarian and controlling than parents of â€Å"normal† children. Problems of underachievement in schooling can be attributed to parent-child conflicts, low levels of parental availability, and lack of openness between the parent and child. Studies have shown that students with performance anxiety, procrastination, and passive aggressive behavior in school are likely to come from over organized families, where parents are overprotective, restrictive, intrusive, controlling, and dominating (Medway and Cafferty 138). According to psychologist Glenn Israel, a more recent study produced similar results, stressing that parents should help their children with their homework, discuss important school activities with them, and hold high educational aspirations for them (48). They should also limit television  viewing, provide adult supervision when their children come home from school, and monitor homework. Doing so was proven to result in better academic performance and staying in school (Israel 48). Other causes for students to perform better in school involves the child’s social behavior, which are a reflection of the family, particularly the parents. For example, children who move frequently are generally unable to feel integrated in the community’s social structure. On the other hand, the more groups a student is involved in (scouts, religious affiliations, etc), the greater his/ her socialization skills. Better socialization skills can in turn be linked to better school performance (Israel 49). Parenting techniques contribute largely to a child’s academic performance, though this theory is probably the least credible of the three. It is obvious that a parent’s behavior affects his/her child, and their education, but the evidence was too stereotypical. It is outrageous to assume that because a child has a learning disability he/ she comes from an unstable home life. There are many other reasons that influence that, including biology and genetics. However, I strongly agree with the socialization aspects of this argument. Dr. Urie Bronfenbrenner says, â€Å"Children are most significantly influenced by their parents; therefore, if parents have few friends and are uninvolved in community activities, children are likely to be the same way† (40). Socialization definitely plays a role in academic performance, especially at the age of adolescence, when â€Å"fitting in† is so important to students (Bronfenbrenner 40). It is also obvious that parents playing a role in their child’s education is beneficial. Students need the motivation to perform well. If they don’t receive it, they will not be as successful. True as this may be, parenting technique is not the sole answer to this question of how parenting styles affect a child’s academic success. The third reason often used to explain the connection between family life and a student’s education is the economic position of the student’s family. Children often base their goals on their parents’ achievements. A study showed that while all parents would like their children to receive  high levels of education and a prestigious career, low-income parents seem to set lower standards. They are satisfied with lower levels of education and less prestigious jobs Students from lower-income families suffer other disadvantages as well. Economic hardship and stress have been known to affect the relationship between the parent and child. In addition, if the socioeconomic status of the student is low, the amount of parental support, control, and consistency is often low as well. A study by Saucier and Ambert revealed, â€Å"Adolescents from intact families have been found to be more optimistic about the future than those from homes in which there has been a separation, divorce, or parental death† (Brantlinger 154). The amount of parental involvement with education was also found to vary with income. Most students studied claim that their parents attended conferences and activities in elementary school, but there became a gap during junior high and high school. High-income students say their parents still attended, while low-income students’ parents did not. Additionally, high-income adolescents’ parents were much more likely to receive help with schoolwork, such as editing written assignments, than were low-income parents. This could be a result of the education the parents had received. After all, low-income parents had often dropped out of school prior to graduation, while high-income parents had high-levels of educational attainment (Brantlinger 156). A study by Carlos Torres and Theodore Mitchell showed that powerful more affluent parents played a significant role in maintaining a â€Å"†¦hierarchical track structure†¦Ã¢â‚¬  for their child. These parents ensured that their children did well in school. This was made achievable possibly through extra help, tutoring, and increasing the pressure placed on the child to do well (163). Family size and parenting techniques can be related to wealth differences. For example, the smaller the family, the higher the proportion of the income can be spent on the child(ren). Those with better parenting techniques also have a higher economic standing than other parents. Better parenting methods can be linked to the parents having received a higher education. In turn,  they often have more money. While it was found that family size and parenting techniques affect one’s education, it is merely because of wealth. For example, it is not the actual number of people in the family, but the amount of money the family has because of the number of members. Economics are the key factor as to why one’s family life affects one’s education, and it’s a cycle. Children often grow up to be in the same economic class as the family he came from. Therefore, if a parent didn’t attend college, the student is less likely to (Shumow 37). So why does one’s family life affect his education. The answer can be summed up in one word: money. So what can we do about this problem? How can we give economically disadvantaged children a good education? There are several options: For one state funding for poorer schools could be increased. Also, if poor communities applied for grants, they could use them to fund their schools. There are also programs out there to help poor schools. The SETA Head Start Program and the Equity in Education Project were developed for the purpose of improving the lives of low-income children by providing â€Å"quality, comprehensive, child development services that are family focused, including education, health, nutrition, and mental health† (Head Start Home Page Screen 1.) By getting communities involved and educated about programs such as these it is very possible to prevent educational disadvantages like coming from a low-income household or neighborhood. No matter how many elected school officials declare that â€Å"poverty is not an excuse† for poor school performance, the fact remains that children in poverty do not achieve well in school. In a study by Abt Associates, researchers examined the performance of children in high- and low-poverty schools. High-poverty schools were defined as those with 76% or more of the student body eligible for free or reduced-price lunches; low-poverty schools had 20% or less of the student body eligible for federally subsidized lunches. The researchers first divided the students into categories A, B, C,  or D–depending on what grade they commonly took home on their report cards. Then they looked at performance on achievement tests. Students in low-poverty schools who got A’s on their report cards scored as one would expect: 87th percentile in math, 81st in reading. Students in high-poverty schools who got A’s scored higher than their classmates who got lower grades, but they attained only the 36th percentile in reading and the 35th in math (Cirasulo 44). One can only imagine the sledgehammer that will hit these students when they have to compete with students from more affluent schools. What is so depressing about this is the fact that education is the only way to get out of poverty. Education is the only intervention that can help children from poor families escape the cycle. In addition to giving young people basic skills, education can make them aware of opportunities beyond the ghetto. The few who escape the problems of crime, drugs, prostitution, and unwed motherhood are those who have received help from committed teachers and social workers. Schools cannot create jobs or carry all the burdens of a community, but they can make a vital contribution if they are allowed to focus on their primary mission of education. Teachers do not create jobs for poor people, and they cannot erase the damage done by drugs. Granted, schools cannot take on all the burdens of the communities they serve; they should be allowed to focus on what they insist is their reason for existence — the education of children. When it comes to the educational success of a child, money should never be a factor. Unfortunately money is a factor and there is never enough to fulfill the needs of a child.

Friday, August 30, 2019

Personal Space

Personal space was an idea first developed by German born Swedish psychologist David Katz in 1937. It is very often describes as an â€Å"emotionally charged bubble of space which surrounds each individual† or alternately â€Å"Personal space is the region surrounding a person which they regard as psychologically theirs. Most people value their personal space and feel discomfort, anger, or anxiety when their personal space is encroached.† On the other hand, some research suggests that the personal space bubble is not circular, but elliptical and so we can tolerate people coming closer to us at the side than front or behind.The 4 stages of a person’s Personal SpaceThis is a Proxemics Theory, which had been investigated by Edward T Hall in 1959, who describes a person’s personal space to be in 4 layers;Intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering Close phase – less than 6 inches (15 cm) Far phase – 6 to 18 inches (15 to 46 cm)The clo sest distance is generally the domain of those who have an intimate relationship with each other, but also includes situations where the social rules allow contact, for example in a wrestling match (Edward Hall distinguishes between near situations requiring body contact and far distances which require being very close but not in contact (whispering)). This distinction is rather artificial since whether contact occurs will depend on a variety of things such as the social and physical setting.Personal distance for interactions among good friends or family membersClose phase – 1.5 to 2.5 feet (46 to 76 cm) Far phase – 2.5 to 4 feet (76 to 120 cm)This zone generally reserved for good friends or intimate partners in a social setting; the near aspect is generally reserved for couples or very close friends, whereas, the far phase is used by acquaintances or simple friends.Social distance for interactions among acquaintances Close phase – 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m) Far phase – 7 to 12 feet (2.1 to 3.7 m)This is the zone where those who are not acquainted interact or where business transactions occur. The near distance would be used by those being introduced or for informal business transactions whereas the far phase would be reserved for more formal business processes.Public distance used for public speaking Close phase – 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 m) Far phase – 25 feet (7.6 m) or more.It is subdivided into near phase such as the distance between a speaker and an audience, and the far phase being the distance for example between the public and an important public figure.This is an easy concept to understand; if anybody enters our bubble, then they are invading personal space.Invading Personal SpaceWhen somebody invades another person’s personal space it can make the person feel anxious, awkward, insecure, vulnerable, annoyed and uncomfortable simply because there is another person standing too close to them and makes t hem question the intensions of the invader.. The term â€Å"invasion† would generally only be used if the person â€Å"invading† it has not earned their place in one of the four layers. There are actually many psychological and physical effects that are activated when a person is getting too close to another and they cause people to behave a little different than usual, for example:Extreme self awareness – suddenly we forget how to act ‘naturally'.Limited movements and gestures.Reduced eye contact.Turning aside or away from the intruder.We'll usually immediately take a step back.Adopting a defensive position – folded arms, less smiles, frowning, tense posture.Stopping the conversation entirely.Factors that influence personal space:GenderMales interacting with other males require the largest interpersonal distance, Men are more territorial and aggressive by nature and will keep more distance from other men, but when it comes to women we will usually prefer to get a little closer. This is then followed by females interacting with other females, which requires a little less space and distance as compared to just two men, as investigated by Gifford in 1987. Women are also more sociable than men: they get social cues better, more emotionally expressive and are generally better than us men when it comes to emotional communication. It's only natural then that women will feel more comfortable being closer to each other than men. However it probably depends on the situation, or the relationship, or the age group and so on as well.CultureThis is perhaps the most important factor when it comes to investigating the difference in invasion of personal space. Hall (1959) identified the importance of cultural variation. He suggested that while all cultures use personal space to communicate, and tend to conform to the different categories, the size of the space within the categories varies across cultures. Hall also identified the essential is sue in inter-cultural difference as the tendency to interpret invasions of personal space as an indication of aggression.Some international examples of this are: ‘Distant' cultures (northern Europe, US, and many other westerns cultures) tend to keep more personal space and use less touching than other more ‘warm' cultures. Asian cultures are characterized as more accommodating and accepting attitudes when it comes to personal space, the theory says it's due to more crowded living conditions. Other cultures including south Europe, Middle East and South American's are considered to be more ‘warm' by nature – touch and close proximity are more welcomed and socially accepted. Age- Some evidence suggests that personal space gets bigger as we grow older (Hayduk, 1983). Children tend to be quite happy to be physically close to each other, something which changes as awareness of adult sexuality develops. In addition the gender difference does tend to also appear at this time.StatusStatus has a huge effect on your personal space size and demand. First of all, like the alpha male of the pack, the higher the status the more space is considered to be one’s (no surprise that the first class seats are bigger and have more space per individual!). Status also affects the size of the territory that is required. Just Like the kings of old owned a huge palace – not because they needed 20 bedrooms and an Olympic swimming pool, but because it showed the measure of their power and influence. In modern days we have the equivalent mansions of the rich and famous to demonstrate their wealth and rich lifestyle.PersonalityThere is some evidence of personality difference but effects here need to be treated with caution given the situational dependence of traits. Extraverted and gregarious persons tend to require smaller personal space, while cold and quarrelsome people require a larger interpersonal distance (Gifford, 1982).Urban vs. RuralThe amount of personal space someone needs is relative to the population density of where they live, for example, in sparsely populated areas people get more space than in densely populated areas; country people are used to live in a vast and mildly populated areas while city dwellers are more used to crowding. This means that city dwellers will usually have a smaller personal space than country people due to this habit of density.The distance someone extends his/her arm to shake hands gives us a clue whether he/she is from a rural or urban area. People from the city tend to have an 18-inch bubble which allows the hands to meet in neutral territory. People brought up in a town with a small population have a space bubble of up to a meter. People from rural areas tend to stand with their feet firmly planted on the ground and lean forward for the handshake, whereas a city dweller will step forward to greet you. People raised in remote areas might require an even greater Personal Space, which cou ld be as wide as 6 meters. They prefer to wave rather than shake hands.Case StudiesStudy 1- Felipe & Sommer 1966AimTo examine the effects of the invasion of personal space Method- Research was carried out in a public library amongst people of similar cultural backgrounds who were sitting alone. These people were split into two groups: 1) Those where the confederate approached them, sat in the chair next to them and moved the chair closer to them. 2) Those where the confederate approached them and sat in the next-but-one chair.ResultsWhen someone came and sat in the chair next to them and moved the chair closer to them, 70% of the lone people left within half-an-hour. When someone came and sat in the next-but-one chair only 13% of the lone people left within half-an-hour. Conclusion- People found this invasion of their personal space disruptive. Researchers also noted that those whose personal space had been invaded moved their chair, put ‘barriers’ up such as books and changed their body position to move away.Evaluation of this study:StrengthHas high ecological validity since it was conducted in a public place. Weakness- This study used people from a similar background and hence may only be applicable to those sorts of people- this study cannot be generalised.Case Study 2- Sommer 1969AimTo examine whether there are cultural differences in the use of personal space Method- Researchers observed groups of Arab people and groups of white English people in conversation. Results- The comfortable distance for conversation for Arab people was under 1 m, whereas for white English people the comfortable distance was between 1 m and 1.5 m. Conclusion- Different cultures are comfortable with different amounts of personal space.Evaluation of this study:StrengthExplores how culture affects somebody’s personal space and hence raises awareness of how different cultures have various tolerance levels (when it comes to personal space). This study also raises awareness to people of different cultures when they are visiting other, culture rich countries. Weakness- The study was conducted a long time ago and due to the many revolutions and acceptances between cultures in today’s day, the results and findings may not be as accurate now as they were then. This poses questions about whether and how time has affected personal space within the different cultures, and would possibly need a new experiment to be conducted, to update the results.Examples of invading personal space:Inviting a teacher into a student’s personal space when their help is needed at school/in class for example to help solve a problem; this relation is always a professional relationship. When caught fighting and stopped, some kids like to tease the other party with a simple trick- they reach out with their hand and almost touch the other kid (or even worse, stuck the palm in front of their face), then they say something like â€Å"I don't touch you†. I t's actually an invitation for a fight, without taking responsibility for starting it, because it's impossible not to respond to this kind of irritation.If you'll meet your favorite movie star, you will welcome his company and even his touch; even though he's almost a complete stranger to you. But it won't go the other way around- it will be highly inappropriate to get too close to that star without a clear invitation to do so. You'll probably keep a distance from your boss (probably the same one from the previous example) during work, but on fishing at trip together some of the social borders will fall down, and you'll feel more comfortable being in closer distance. However, when you'll get back to work again, you'll retain the appropriate workspace between you.

Thursday, August 29, 2019

Brand names as loan words Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Brand names as loan words - Essay Example The interaction of cultures and races has presented the multinational companies and their marketing strategies with the challenge of utilising â€Å"loan words† as brand names and vice versa to capture greater market shares. This paper explores not only various examples in this regard but their underlying linguistic implications and explanations. Loan words which are used as brand names are borrowed from other languages in referring to foreign items of food, sports, and clothes.(Koslow 1994:575-585) There are many examples of the use of foreign words like kebab, sushi, pasta, Eu de toilette ,cologne which are all basically foreign brand names and †¦.and the list could go on running into thousands of pages. The question at hand gives an interesting example of the Omo washing powder itself. A similar example can be given about many other brand names.In the early nineties when washing powder was replacing washing soap in the South East Asian countries especially Pakistan and India, people increasingly used the term â€Å"Surf†(which was the original name of the brand) to refer to any washing powder.†Surf† was therefore a loan word.Another modern example is Google.Nowadays nobody wants to just search the â€Å"search engine†.In fact the term search engine has become obsolete eversince the term â€Å"to google† or â€Å"googled† was invented."to google" or "googled" was invented.Therefore there has been an increase in the situations where foreign brand names have infiltrated our local languages as well as where loan words used as brand names become common colloquialisms.(Luna.D 2001;284-295) Consider the term "xeroxing" for example which comes from t he Xerox brand photocopiers and "hovered"(meaning to use a vacuum machine) coming from the famous Hoover brand of Vacuum Cleaners. The mass media has become a leading source of new loanwords. In the new age we have the American advertisements asking Asian audiences to "do the dew" and almost every other cold drink bottle is called Pepsi or Coke, regardless of what the brand on top of the bottle says. News, programs, documentaries, game and quiz shows, sports, even dramas have all got a significant role to play in adding more and more foreign words and phrases to the local languages through clever advertising and catchy slogans.(Danesi 2004). The main reason for this may be because, "Copywriters believe that foreign words add class or mystique to their copy. It makes no difference that the average reader doesn't understand the message. They aren't supposed to. What does matter is that the text evokes an image and attaches prestige value to the products being advertised." (Douglas 2006) These strange usages can often become household names successfully yet they cause conceptual problems for learners faced with processing English as a second language along with their native languages. Academics have often argued that languages have an evolution history of their own and the usage of these languages is in a constant state of influx. Some languages die or get extinct, others get old yet

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

The Interview Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Interview Project - Essay Example When Linda was asked about the main causes of her divorce, she cited the lack of compassion and romance as the key reason why the marriage failed. Linda and her husband loved each other very much, just not in a way that would run them through marriage. However, she argued that she valued her husband very much and more often than not, they had a lot of fun together. However, something seemed to be missing from the picture. From an objective opinion, the main reason for their divorce was the absence of compassionate and romantic love. Lamanna, Riedmann, and Stewart (2015) review such a case when addressing marriage as an institution. According to the text, marriage is not based on love alone and this has been the case for centuries since the establishment of marriage. Marriage in the past was an economic and political institution that should not be entered merely because people are in love or care for each other (Lamanna, Riedmann, and Stewart, 2015). The dynamics of marriage are not similar to that of a normal relationship. Hence, Linda and her ex-husband were completely justified to get married, because they were compatible and responsible for each other. Linda also argues that her husband and she were best friends and they would talk about anything. They agreed on almost everything, but the absence of love, the same love that should not be considered when getting married, was the key cause of the divorce. However, in time, the concept romantic love in marriage came to be expected in marriage. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, individualism became the norm. People craved with personal satisfaction and happiness, began attaching the concept of marriage with romantic love all through Europe (Lamanna, Riedmann, and Stewart, 2015). As such, the reason for the divorce was ultimately justified. When asked about how divorce affected her, Linda was frank to

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

The Great Gatsby Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6

The Great Gatsby - Essay Example This depiction of the stereotypical women roles is especially true in the 1920’s setting of the novel. In the narration of the story, though it is accurate that the males are the central characters, the women serve to help shape them and make the audience appreciate who they are and why they are such. These women, for the most part, appear like they have no control over their lives and that it is the men who give directions and make the decisions. But all of them are gullible to their relationships. Toward the end nobody knows who is playing who. The women seem like tragic characters but the reader does not always feel for them because a lot of it is their fault. The plot becomes interesting as it revolves around the women and how they serve as the anchor of the events. Daisy Buchanan is the central character that binds the whole thing together. She is perhaps the very reason for the creation of Jay Gatsby, a worldly man created by James Gatz to impress her and sweep her off her feet. From their romantic encounter years earlier, Gatz fell in love with Daisy and created an idea of her he could not let go. Daisy’s marriage to Tom Buchanan started off unusually with the latter’s display of wealth and the pearls which she had privately refused saying â€Å"Tell ‘em all Daisy’s change’ her mine. Say ‘Daisy’s change’ her mine!’† (Fitzgerald 83) but thereafter wore as if nothing happened. From the early days of their marriage Tom’s infidelity was already obvious with a chambermaid in his car during an accident just right after their honeymoon. After marriage, Daisy had become a notorious socialite together with her rich husband. â€Å"They moved with a fast crowd, all of them youn g and rich and wild, but she came out with an absolutely perfect reputation† (ibid 84). Myrtle Wilson lives an equally miserable married life comparable to Daisy’s

Monday, August 26, 2019

Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 5

Research Paper Example In order to improve the security as well as reducing police workload at the same time, new technological innovations have come up that are capable of improving the performance of the police. These technologies have expanded considerably and added reinforcement to frontline officers. According to statistics from the 2007 survey conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the local police departments use various technologies for different law enforcement processes. In turn, these technologies have reduced the workload of police and effort used in day-to-day activities. For instance, the criminal investigation uses 60% of technology, crime mapping and analysis (100%), dispatch (49%), information sharing (50%), and record management (79%). In addition, 90% of departments serving over 250,000 people use fingerprinting technology and two-thirds also reported to be regularly utilizing video cameras for speed, CCTV, and those in patrol cars (Roberts). The emergence of fingerprinting and crime laboratories between 1900 and 1920 has by far increased the capacity for the police to solve crimes and incarcerate the guilty offenders. Later in the years, this is what emerged to be the core of forensics (McElreath et al. 299). The driving force for the introduction of forensics was to foresee justice prevail because before, the judicial proceedings were just based on evidence coming from victim statements and coerced confessions. Forensics was the better option after jurists and criminologists were convinced that it had standards of neutrality and objectivity. In addition, forensics could add fairness and precision to investigations as a result scientists and doctors had a partnership with the police so that they could integrate solving crimes and science (McElreath et al., 300). Despite forensic taking charge a bit slowly, most police departments in the US began appreciating the results it brought

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Paradigms Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Research Paper

Paradigms Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - Research Paper Example They often pressured her to perform well at school; they insisted that it would safeguard her future. The parents are devoted Muslims, who consider daily prayers and the Quran a daily routine. During the therapy session, the mother stated that Halima had been suffering from severe anxiety for a period of one year. Further, she said that Halima used to wake up and cry during the night. The mother stated that the daughter often complained that she was not sure whether she would succeed in her mathematics class at school. Often, she asked the mother to recheck her homework so that she could know that she had completed it successfully. Despite the efforts of the mother, Halima’s anxiety continued, and would worry about other things like the location of her books, school bag, and other diminutive things. Halima had also exhibited compulsive hand washing, in preparation for prayer, during the five times of prayer for Muslims. She demonstrated the need to do everything perfectly. Halima insisted that her problems started during a mathematics class when the teacher threatened of failing them. For that reason, she had started hating mathematics for fear that she would fail. Sometimes, she decided not to go to school since she felt like crying all the time. She explained that she liked all her teachers, except her mathematics teacher. Often, she feared that her parents would die, meditating on how she could continue her life, in case they died. She also feared about a trip that the mother took to visit the elder brother of Halima. Halima felt that she would be left alone, and would not be able to complete her homework without her help. Halima was diagnosed using an interview-based clinical approach, and scored 25 on the obsessive-compulsive rating in a scale between 0 and 40, which implied acute OCD. The symptoms perceived in her included repetitive, unrealistic,

Saturday, August 24, 2019

Buddhism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Buddhism - Essay Example Buddha then offered to heal her child only if she is able to bring a mustard seed given by a family who has not experienced death. Kisogatami searched and was able to find families willing to provide her with the mustard seed but to her dismay each one had experienced death at one point. In the end, Kisogatami understood that death comes to all and she finally accepted the fact of her baby’s death (Matthews, p.115). The idea of death in Buddhism, much like in every other religion, is an acceptable and inevitable part of human life. But where death is usually the end of a life’s cycle in others, the concept of rebirth is a reoccurring process until one reaches Nirvana which is essentially â€Å"the state of being free of egocentrism and the suffering that it causes. Positively, it is joy and peace† (ibid). Karmic destiny is understood to be an invisible force to which certain events and something that even moral justice is not included as opined by some since some Buddhists regard this as the causation of suffering brought about not by their doing and beyond any person’s control. Weber (as cited by Keyes and Daniel, p.15) cannot â€Å"be a logical solution to theodicy, since it points to an ultimate force that cannot be comprehended in logical terms.† Cause and effect best describes the notion of karma and how it affects the life of an individual. Fundamentally, man seeks to find an explanation to the suffering which one endures and religion can provide for a comprehensive elucidation to this predicament by offering various and largely acceptable enlightenments. Westerns philosophers are among the supporters of how the notion of karma and rebirth provides for a substantial explication of suffering and the problem evil. Extensively compared to the Christian rationalization of evil, Max Weber and Arthur Henman together with Michael Stoeber points to the apparent logic of this Buddhist doctrines as a more reasonable justification than the notion of purgatory (Kaufman, pp.15-16). Buddhism has greatly advanced its presence worldwide and the logical appreciation of karma brings it forth as a simple yet compelling belief which can be attributed to its acceptability. In the strict erudite of theodicy, the conviction of God as an all-loving and all-knowing Supreme Being gives rise to the basic question of why does evil exist. This main concern of theodicy makes karma an inconsistent answer since as pointed out earlier, karma does not extensively discuss nor expound on the same because man’s suffering is by his own doing base on previous acts or wrongdoings. Nevertheless, Kaufman maintains that a modern understanding of the concept would elucidate on karma and reincarnation as it provides for an easy response to why suffering exists. He then accedes to the five recognizable flaws in consideration of karma. The first is that one does not remember anything in what is supposed to be one’s own past life a nd is thus inimical to justice since he would never know for what he is being punished for. Second is the fact that there must be a correlation to the amount of suffering in consideration of what was previously done and in this case, similar to the previous one, there would be clear difficulty in ascertaining what offense was previously committed. The third is what he refers to as infinite regress which points to questioning the beginning of the process and in this sense it ignores the question by the

Class 6340 week 2 discussion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Class 6340 week 2 discussion - Assignment Example ctant women on both prenatal and postnatal care since this information was not being provided due to the lack of enough nurses and midwifes in that area where the clinic was located. This gave me an opportunity to provide my gained knowledge to them and hence helped to save mothers and their unborn children. Other than that service, I also participated in awareness of stress management in different locations also in Ohio State. It was a campaign organized by a public hospital in conjunction with several other stakeholders whose initiative was to offer information to blue-collared workers about how to manage stress and even offer counseling services to them. The skills and knowledge I have had in counseling enabled me to be comfortable participating in this activity. The scholarship is qualified to be a scholarship of teaching because according to the American Association of Colleges of Nursing, its aim is to pass knowledge from an experienced nurse to a novice or even pass knowledge to the other nursing student which is what my online website was all about (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 1999). In the first service activity in a maternity clinic, the recipients of this service were expectant women since those were the people I dealt with one-on-one offering my knowledge, skills and counseling services. Since there were no remunerations being offered to me by either the clinic or the patients, I consider it to be a service. The recipients of the second activity were the blue-collared men and women in Ohio State in those areas we visited. I consider this a service because according to Pape (2000), a service is usually altruistic and in my case, the activity was purely altruistic. The scholarship is still a work in progress as I need to advertise it to more nursing students and make them participate and post information that is peer-reviewed and credible and also that the information posted should be relevant to the other nursing students as

Friday, August 23, 2019

The Probable Effects of Globalization On Union Membership Essay

The Probable Effects of Globalization On Union Membership - Essay Example This essay stresses that the development of the debate took a dichotomous institutional perspective. One group consisted of researchers who supported the international financial institutions’ view that market forces give superior employment results. This group called for non-intervention in the labor market. The other group consisted of researchers sensitive to the UNICEF Report who supported the International Labor Organization’s view that given the existence of market failures in resource markets, including the labor market, government intervention is necessary to establish minimum conditions for employment. This paper makes a conclusion that the Bank’s ‘distortion’ view claims that interventions result in employment failing to adjust to economic shocks. It argues that economic policies that protect employment in the face of economic decline result in more pain to enterprises, and worsens the recession, but says nothing about the pain to workers. Thus asserting that employment protection has efficiency costs is in a way selective and incomplete use economic theory. Nevertheless, Fallon and Lucas found the impact of labor market interventions to be perverse in India and Zimbabwe. They observed that strict employment protection significantly reduced the level of employment growth. The strength of unions is also viewed as a source of labor market inflexibility. Advocates of non-intervention therefore call for the weakening of unions to facilitate flexibility.

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Wynn Resort Essay Example for Free

Wynn Resort Essay 1.) Purpose To know if what is the overall strategy of Steve Wynn to make Wynn Resorts, Ltd. on the right track and quite a remarkable company. 2.) Statement of the Problem There are three problems which I found out in the case, and these are the three challenges that Wynn will have to face, and the future may throw some curveballs along the way. First is need to secure a way to maintain the competitive advantage as increased competition is introduce both domestically and abroad into the gaming industry. Second, The Macau government reserves the right to take control of the Wynn Casino in 2017; this would be detrimental to the profits for the company, and some solutions will need to be devised to ensure that the survival of the company is not majorly dependent on the revenues generated by Wynn Macau resort and casino. A third concern about future success, but certainly not the final concern, is the loss of Steve Wynn himself. Losing Steve Wynn would mean losing his expertise, passion and governmental ties. In the most likely scenario, a loss of Steve Wynn may result in the sale of the firm to a competing company, such as MGM Inc. 3.) Alternative Courses and Actions Wynn must focus on differentiating the company by concentrating on the atmosphere and design of the resorts. Wynn Resort must enhance customer’s service and luxury as full-service provider. 4.) Recommendation Wynn must not only focus to target high-end gaming customers, but he must also offer affordable goods and services to the middle-income clients. This segment includes vacationers and younger people looking for relatively inexpensive place to say with the understanding that most of their budget will go to dining and entertainment. Bibliography 1. http://www.studymode.com/essays/Swot-Analysis-Wynn-Ltd-946073.html 2. http://www.investingvalue.com/investment-leaders/steve-wynn/index.html

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

Causes effects and history of prostitution

Causes effects and history of prostitution Prostitution is listed among the crimes some refer to as victimless or consensual crimes, but research shows that may not be the true picture of prostitution. Before proceeding, we need to define prostitution. Despite of the fact that, prostitution being known as the oldest profession in the history of mankind. The workable definition has proven elusive. From a dictionary we learn that prostitution is the act or practice of engaging in sexual intercourse for money. But a prostitute cannot simply be a woman who sells her body, since that was the norm of the society that women will get marriage in order to accomplish home and better life style. Promiscuity has been proposed as another candidate. Medieval canon lawyer Johannes Teutonicus suggested that a woman who had sex with more than 23,000 men should be classified as a prostitute, although, furthermore he says that sexual intercourse with 40 to 60 opposite gender would also be called prostitute. However, promiscuity itself does not turn a woman into a prostitute. Although a vast majority of prostitutes are promiscuous, most people would agree that sleeping around does not amount to prostitution. Hence I define prostitution as systematic sexual violence and oppression against female. Selected national and international research projects and various programs by women have been initiated to address the health burden of violence against women. Such projects have especially focused on the health consequences to women of battering or domestic violence, rape and sexual assault, child sexual abuse and incest, and female genital mutilation (See, for example, World Bank Discussion Papers 255, Violence Against Women: the Hidden Health Burden). In depicting the health effects of such forms of violence against women, these projects attempt to make the violence, harm and human rights violation to women visible. However, a consideration of the dire health consequences of prostitution demonstrates that prostitution not only gravely impairs womens health but it is obviously violence against women. The health consequences to women from prostitution are the same injuries and infections suffered by women who are subjected to other forms of violence. The physical health consequences include: injury (bruises, broken bones, black eyes, concussions). A 1994 study conducted with 68 women in Minneapolis/St.Paul who had been prostituted for at least six months found that 50% of those women had been physically assaulted by their purchasers, and a third of those experienced purchaser assaults at least several times a year. 23% of those assaulted were beaten severely enough to have broken bones. Furthermore, 90% of the women in this study had experienced violence in their personal relationships resulting in miscarriage, stabbing, loss of consciousness, and head injuries (Parriott, Health Experiences of Twin Cities Women Used in Prostitution). Prostitution is physically harmful to women. STDs (including HIV/AIDS, chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes, human papilloma virus, and syphilis) are alarmingly high among women in prostitution. Only 15 % of the women in the Minneapolis/St. Paul study had never contracted one of the STDs, not including AIDS, most injurious to health (chlamydia, syphilis, gonorrheal, herpes). General gynecological problems, but in particular chronic pelvic pain and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), plague women in prostitution. The Minneapolis/St. Paul study reported that 31% of the women interviewed had experienced at least one episode of PID which accounts for most of the serious illness associated with STD infection. Among these women, there was also a high incidence of positive pap smears, several times greater than the Minnesota Department of Healths cervical cancer screening program for low and middle income women. More STD episodes can increase the risk of cervical cancer. Another physical effect of p rostitution is unwanted pregnancy and miscarriage. Other health effects include irritable bowel syndrome, as well as partial and permanent disability. The emotional health consequences of prostitution include severe trauma, stress, depression, anxiety, self-medication through alcohol and drug abuse; and eating disorders. Almost all the women in the Minneapolis/St. Paul study categorized themselves as chemically-addicted. Crack cocaine and alcohol were used most frequently. Ultimately, women in prostitution are also at special risk for self-mutilation, suicide and homicide. 46% of the women in the Minneapolis/St. Paul study had attempted suicide, and 19% had tried to harm themselves physically in different ways, for example, in another survey of 55 victims/survivors of prostitution who used the services of the Council for Prostitution Alternative in Portland, Oregon, 78% were victims of rape by pimps and male buyers an average of 49 times a year; 84% were the victims of aggravated as sault and were thus horribly beaten, often requiring emergency room attention and hospitalization; 53% were victims of sexual abuse and torture; and 27% were mutilated (Documentation available from the Council for Prostitution Alternatives). In developing countries, it has also been estimated that 70 percent of female infertility is caused by sexually transmitted diseases that can be traced back to their husbands or partners (Jodi L. Jacobson, The Other Epidemic, p. 10). Among women in rural Africa, female infertility is widespread from husbands or partners who migrate to urban areas, buy commercial sex, and bring home infection and sexually transmitted diseases. Women in prostitution industries have been blamed for this epidemic of STDs when in reality, studies confirm that it is men who buy sex in the process of migration who carry the disease from one prostitute woman to another and ultimately back to their wives and girlfriends. The movement of abandoned or rejected barren women to urban prostitution has been documented in Niger, Uganda, and the Central African Republic. Numerous studies in Africa and Asia by the World Bank and a number of international research organizations have found that divorced or separated wom en comprise the great majority of prostitutes or semi prostitutes (Jacobson, p. 13). Thus, a major health effect of the mass male consumption of commercial sex and the expansion of sex industries in developing countries is not only a rampant increase in sexually transmitted diseases but an exponential increase in infertility. The further effects of this vicious cycle insure that a whole new segment of women who are abandoned by their husbands due to infertility, are propelled into prostitution for survival. In both developing and industrialized country contexts, current campaigns to control the spread of HIV/AIDS by advocating safe sex for women in prostitution fail to address the blatant inequities between women who are bought for sex and the men who pay for it. Any AIDS strategy based on negotiating condom use between the purchaser of sex and the woman who must supply it assumes symmetry of power that does not even exist between women and men in many personal consensual relationsh ips. If AIDS programs are serious about eradicating AIDS, they must challenge the sex industry. Women in prostitution are targeted as the problem instead of making the sex industry problematic and challenging the mass male consumption of women and children in commercial sex. This is institutionalized when governments and NGOs argue for the medicalization of prostitution when they propose laws on prostitution which subject women to periodic medical check-ups. It is stated that women in the sex industry would be better protected if they submitted, or were required to submit, to health and especially STD screening. The way in which sex industries are responsible for the widespread health problems of women and children is mystified with proposals to implement health checks of women in the industry. No proposals have been forthcoming, from those who would propose both mandatory and voluntary medical surveillance for women in the sex industry, to medically monitor the men who would purchase sex. The same is true with current attempts to medicalize prostitution. No action will stabili ze the sex industry more than legitimating prostitution through the health care system. If medical personnel are called upon to monitor women in prostitution, as part of occupational health safety, we will have no hope of eradicating the industry. Furthermore, from a health perspective alone, it is inconceivable that medicalization of women in the industry will reduce infection and injury without concomitant medicalization of the male buyers. Thus medicalization, which is rightly viewed as a consumer protection act for men rather than as a real protection for women, ultimately protects neither women nor men. As with other forms of violence against women eradicating the health burden of prostitution entails addressing but going beyond its health effects. To address the health consequences of prostitution, the international human rights community must understand that prostitution harms women and that in addition to needing health services; women must be provided with the economic, social and psychological means to leave prostitution. Until prostitution is accepted as violence against women and a violation of womens human rights, the health consequences of prostitution cannot be addressed adequately. Conversely, until the health burden of prostitution is made visible, the violence of prostitution will remain hidden. Once Victor Hugo quotes stated in is novel; We say that slavery has vanished from European civilization, but this is not true. Slavery still exists, but now it applies only to women and its name is prostitution.

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

Merits and Demerits of Devaluation

Merits and Demerits of Devaluation Background and History Pakistan has unusual history of successive devaluation. The rupee was first devalued in 1950 in response to a similar move by India. Later in 1972, Z.A. Bhuttos government massively devalued the rupee by 133%. The rupee was further devalued in early 1980s during General Zia regime. Moeen Qureshis caretaker government in 1993 also devalued the rupee by 7%. After that it was Benazir Bhuttos government that further devalued the rupee and finally same measure are being taken by the present government of Prime Minister Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif. Pakistan has been on a system of managed float since January 8, 1982. For most of the past decade the rupee had been fixed in relation to the US dollar at the rate of Rs 9.9= US$1. The new exchange regime commenced with an official nominal depreciation of 5 percent in the month of January, and a cumulative 30 % for the year 1982. This was accompanied by the abandonment of the fixed peg to the US dollar and its replacement by a flexible basket peg whereby the authorities manage the nominal exchange rate actively. The exchange rate system has remained unlettered up to the present and the Government has periodically re-affirmed its commitment to this flexible management in stabilization and adjustment programs negotiated with the IMF. Since the introduction of the new system there has been a continuous downward slide in our exchange rate. At present the rate of Pak RS in 2010. This represents a depreciation of 260 percent since Devaluation and its function Depreciation or devaluation refers to the downward movement of the rate at which the home currency exchanges against the foreign currency or an increase in the domestic price of one unit of the foreign currency. Depreciation is the name given to this drop when it occurs in a free market; devaluation is the same thing resulting from government actions in a market that is not free. Since 1973 most of the currencies are on the floating currency system, through the system of dirty floating still allows government/ central banks to interfere to some extent. The question of devaluing the external value of the currency is one of the hotly debated issues in public policy discussions. On the one hand, the IMF and the World Bank supports devaluation as an important component of their recommended policy package for less developed countries (LDCs). On the other hand many economist and economic policy makers are strongly opposed to devaluing currencies has become a dirty word in many countries. Technically, devaluation of a currency is the last resort when other fiscal and monetary measures like demand management , financial incentive, trade restrictions have proved to be less effective in solving problem of balance of payment, by boosting the countrys exports and decreasing imports. In countries like Pakistan where major economic problem is lack of growth, exports are low because of poor quality of goods rather than the value of the currency. The mechanism of the open market keeps on adjusting exchange rate automatically and has made devaluation obsolete. Balancing Mechanism Basically devaluation is a measure to correct a fundamental disequilibrium in countrys balance of payments. Equilibrium in a countrys balance is a result of restraint on imports and foreign payments of all sorts and an expansion of exports and foreign exchange earning of all sorts. The restraint on import cannot be achieved through appeals. It has to be done through direct restriction and/or through operation of the price mechanism, that is to say through making imports costlier by operating on import duties, and this in fact has been extensively done in many developing countries, including Pakistan. However, this is open to some objections and limitations so a simple way of making imports costlier is not adjustment of the exchange rate. The entire burden of making imports costlier is not generally placed on the exchange rate mechanism. It is shared by the device of import duties and also quantitative regulations. The import duty mechanism can also be used to make transition to the n ew exchange rate and to give a certain amount of discretionary treatment to individual items of import. The Price Factor The other major objective of devaluation is to promote export. It should be noted that what is contemplated is an increase in exports in foreign exchange; in term of domestic currency. Exports on the whole will have to increase by more than the percentage of devaluation. Expansion of exports depends upon a number of factors, the elasticity of supply in devaluing country and of demand for the products of that country abroad. Much depends on the prices at which the devaluing country is able to offer its goods. Contractionary Impact Reluctance to adjust the exchange rate in downward direction is due to its possible contractionary impact on output and employment, re-distribution of income from wages earner to property owners, cost-push inflationary pressure and the initial favourable effect on the balance of payment. All of the above will eventually reserved through a process of domestic inflation and larger imports. When quantitative controls on imports duties are reduced along with the devaluation, imports and exports are not particularly sensitive to price changes especially in the short run. This is particularly applicable in the case of UDCs whose imports are often consist of essential capital goods, intermediate inputs including fuel and fertilizer and sometimes basic consumer goods like food grains, edible oils etc. There is little scope for cutting down these imports. The exports of UDCs on the other hand mainly consist of primary commodities and processed materials whose supply elasticity are rather low in short run. If devaluation has to improve the balance of trade in short run, it should come through a reduction in the level of output and changes in the distribution of income towards high saver which would reduce the demand for imports and generate a bigger exportable surplus. Recession, unemployment and unequal distribution of income are the costs of a successful devaluation. Inflationary Pressure The ineffective of exchange rate adjustment in securing improvement in the external balance primarily comes from the fact that changes in costs arising from exchange rate movements feed through quickly and extensively into the economy and contribution to the accerlation of prevailing inflationary pressure associated with an improvement of the monetary conditions. The rigid climb in price over a long period has stimulated defensive inflationary responses amoung industrialists, agriculturalist, business mens, and wage earner and has nullified the impact of exchange rate adjustments on the international competitiveness of our exports. It should be taken into account that devaluation corrects the past inflationary and other economic development that led to adverse movement in the balance of payment. This does not protect the balance of payments against further inflationary and other adverse developments. Frequent devaluation of a currency is undesirable. It stimulates speculation and res ults in distortion in income, consumption, industrial growth and public finance. This also erodes the confidence in the currency. DEMAND Management Unfortunately, for keeping our external accounts disequilibrium within sustainable limits, we have relied rather heavily on exchange rate adjustment and not paid attention to the efficiency dimension of our economic system. Economic efficiency at the macro and micro levels requires high productivity, technological efficiency, high rates of saving and investment, and incomes policy that does not lead to cost-push inflation and fiscal-monetary policy that provides a stable environment for careful demand management. These are the simple and inflexible economic laws that were recognized and grasped. Neither negative controls nor artificial stimuli like frequent depreciation of external value of the currency with help except a little and temporarily. International trade and Devaluation Globalization is the strategy of todays world. The concept of information sharing has reinforced the process of globalization throughout the world. The consultant and analysts are, therefore, working on the integration of the entire system to run smoothly without any hindrances. Looking at the economic activity in this scenario, there is two major classifications, good and services. The globalization of goods can be seen in the prospective of international trade. By international trade we mean exchange of goods between the nations. Looking at the economies of the world we find that the states are broadening their activities by offering investors to share their share of excellence and encouraging their local manufacture to explore the possibilities of selling their goods in the foreign markets. International trade is very important in terms of increasing the foreign exchange of the country which ultimately prospers the people. The Government of Pakistan has liberalized its trade policy with devaluation of Pak rupee and encouraged the manufacturers to export their goods and invited foreign companies to compete in the local market. The key reason for international trade is provided by the theory of Comparative costs importance of relative cost saving in the production of one item over the other. Obviously it would be better to buy a product from china at the price of Rs 1/= instead of producing it at the cost of Rs. 2/- that can be ultimately be sold for Rs 2.50 in the market. There are various other reasons which strongly support the trading among the countries, few of which are: Decreasing cost Consumption of excess production Difference in taste Foreign Exchange rate From international trade, we mean buying and selling the goods among nations. The deal cannot, of-course, be taken place without availability of currency to be accepted by the seller, on the other hand an exporter/importer would definitely like to know how the exchange rate of Pakistan rupee into dollar is being fixed, and how can her benefit from it?. At present in Pakistan we have managed float of currency to determine exchange rate as an independent policy instrument. We need some criteria to fix the exchange of currency amoung the countries. It is important to note that only a favourable exchange can really benefits the nation and by favourable exchange, we mean, getting more foreign currency by paying less local currency. Theoretically there are two type of exchange rates: Stable Exchange rate Altough stable exchange rate has no pratical value now a days, yet it helps in understanding the determination of exchange theory. A stable exchange rate was set by the value of gold. However, with passage of time, the limitation and deficiencies of gold standard started emerging. Few of these were carrying inconvencies, remelting of gold, shipment of gold, different valuation of gold by different countries, and unavailability of sufficient gold to meet with the heavy demand. That is why the gold system was found inadequate ans was replaced with the flexible exchange rate. Flexible or floating exchange rate Flexible exchange rate is set by the interaction of demand and supply schedule for foreign exchange indepently. The optimum level in demand and supply teory is set at the point where supply equal to the demand. So if a person want to buy electric equipment from America worth $ 100000/- and an American in contrast wants to buy cotton and the parity between US$ and Pak rupee is 1:1, the equation will be somehow similar to as follows: Demand for US$ by Pakistan 100,000 Demand for Rs. By America 50,000 Pakistan is demanding more dollars than America wants to supply. The demand and supply are not in balance, consequently Pakistan shall have to refix the parity between $ and rupee at a level where our demand for $ will become equal to the supply of $. Now if we reduce the price of our goods by half of the existing price: Demand for US$ by Pakistan 100,000 Demand of Rs by America 25,000 This reduction price will have dual effects: Dollas will become more expensive, the American goods will become more costly. Pakistani Rupee will become more cheaper, our goods will become cheaper and as a result the demand for our goods will increase. From the above it can be included that demans for imports should be in line with supply of exports. Total value of imports and exports of a country can also help manufacturers to design their plans for future expansion. With an expensive foreign currency, export may be increased with relatively low price supply of goods and quality production within the country. At the same time with a cheap currency investment can be made in foreign countries to utilize the cheap resources and ultimately increases the value of the firm. DEVALUATION its effects on Exports As the reason for the devaluation has been to strengthen the countrys balance of payment by stimulating exports, curtailing imports and by encouraging overseas Pakistanis to remit their earning through banks by narrowing the wedge between the official exchange rate and the kerb rate in the open market. It is universally accepted concept that the exchange rate mechanism is used to create a balance between the imports and exports but what is lesser known fact is that this mechanism need to be implemented at the right time and for the right economic reasons to be fully effective in achieving the desired purpose. Advantages and Disadvantages of Devaluation Advantages of Devaluation Devaluation helps in obtaining international market demand perfection in quality and reduction in price up to a competitive level. As both developed and underdeveloped countries function in one international market therefore, it is not easy for Pakistan to sell a product which is also produced by France, Germany or Holland if the prices are high. However, we are competing with the underdeveloped countries, it is, therefore, very necessary for us to adjust our prices with the prices of our competitors to serve in the market. Every new product has four stages, out of which the first stage is introduction stage. An introduction stage demands lot of efforts to promote the product and create awareness among the buyers. At this stage it is vital to sell it at even below the cost. That is why the government provides certain duty drawbacks for a specified period, until that time when the product is self-sufficient. Each country maintains an account for its total imports exports schedule along with balance of payment chart. At times when its imports increase from its exports and the balance of payment deteriorates it becomes vital to increase its exports immediately. The reduction in prices is one of the quickest ways of increasing the exports. At times when people tend to buy imported goods and local industry start suffering, it is necessary to discourage the people so that they cut down their expenditure towards foreign buying and direct towards local goods. Devaluation is one of the techniques to decrease imports and encourage the local industry. Reduction in price through devaluation has long term effects, which can be seen over a period of time. All the above conditions are currently prevailing in Pakistan. However the question arises as to why all these conditions have comparatively more drastic affects on our economy. The answer to this question relates to our policy of income projection and receipt from foreign donors and countries. In the past, we were used to manage our budgetary gaps with the help of aids and debts. But this time the situation is different we could not did any foreign source of income. The IMF was used to extend loans for our development programs in the past. However, during the current year the IMF had stopped its $300 million trench of its ESAF credit. The result is quite obvious: devaluation and imposition of new duties/taxes Disadvantages of Devaluation Devaluation with all its disadvantages has become an irregular policy. It is rater an ad-hoc arrangement for less demand. Instead imperfect planning is essential to forecast the future when the original price level will be maintained again. Devaluation involves high risk of inflation with the country for e.g if the exports do not increase as the result of decrease of price the country will suffer losses due to increase cost of all imports as well as local imports. Loss resulted due to decrease in prices in international market. Devaluation automatically increases the value of external debts and correspondingly the amount required for debt servicing Devaluation of a currency is considered as a last step to be taken after failure of all other fiscal and monetary measures. Before devaluing currency to boost economy through increasing exports, other factors need to be evaluated, for example, lower exports may be because of poor quality of goods, trade barrier, lower value added goods, unavailability of export items e.t.c Continued depreciation of currency may result in unlawful import of goods within the country. Such unlawful import and export may creat unlawful parallel economy within the country, which will be completely out of the control of the government. Devaluation is always supported by special incentive package to reduce the internally produced items for export. By critically analyzing all the above referred factors, it is proposed that the following necessary action should be taken to improve the situation: Tax Network should be enhanced by a) levying tax on agriculture, b) improving collection procedure, c) bringing small businessmen under tax nutshell etc. Imports should be discouraged by encouraging locally produced quality goods. Export of value added items should be increased instead of increase of low value exports to compete with the other developing countries. Needless to say that government should reduce drastically its own expenditure. It is vital for government to build up its creditability through investing money in public projects very honestly. The proceed from privatization of public sectors should be utilized to pay off our external as well as internal debts. Rescheduling of the debt should also be requested from the lenders. In case of our low priced items in the international market, we should prove that the reason of our low price quality items is not government support but cost efficiency. This can be done only with the help of very competent professional people i.e management accounts, engineers and managers. With the current devaluation, it is vital that necessary incentives must be given to industry and fixed income group for their survival and to reap the benefit of devaluation. The government should build capacity to deal with economics problems on both macro and micro level. It is generally believed that the government does not possess necessary capabilities, out of elected representative and bureaucrats to deal with it. That is why most of our key position holder is either current of Ex World Bank/IMF officials. It is also suggested that major businessmen and industrialist should be taken into confidence before any major decision. Effectiveness of price control committees very necessary. In countries like Pakistan where every individual has the power to determine the price of his own product, inflation is automatically multiplied Conclusions Clearly, devaluation has not been the answer. It has rather contributed to a further increase in the trade gap. The important consequences of devaluation are the burden it is putting on the repayment of the foreign debts. The ensuing depletion of reserves has such a negative effect that the positive impact, if any, is more than wiped out by the increased foreign exchange burden. Reviewing the policy of devaluation by successive governments in the last 50 years, one finds that devaluation has miserably failed to resolve any problems or improve the macro or micro economic conditions in the country. Rather, devaluation has been counterproductive. In the existing scenario of the forces of demand and supply, the rupee is expected to continue with its downward trend. If the counter measures through cost cutting and efficiency management are not taken to check the inflation, which is already running in double digit, the advantages of devaluation will be offset as in the past, leaving adverse impacts as our economy which mainly depends on imported raw-materials, fuels and capital goods. That will certainly bring more hardships for common Pakistani people because our industry has substantial imported inputs in a wide range of locally produced goods and will also retard the process of industrialization in the country. Similarly defense budget and debt servicing will c ost more due to costlier dollar. Our main problem is still uncontrolled i.e. the rise in non-development expenditures, which has given rise to the culture of living beyond means. This can be countered by adoption of practical harsh measures by the government especially at the top level to set the example for the whole nation.

Monday, August 19, 2019

time capsule :: essays research papers

Lanyard I chose this object for the time capsule because it is the school of my choice. I hope to start in October of 2002. Currently I do not know whether I will attend the university because of money issues, this place is very expensive! This object fits into or nation because it represents the school, which represents the nation. Kettering is one of the top overall schools in the nation, and the number one mechanical engineering school, it represents how important education is to us Americans. Bible I chose to put the Bible into the time capsule to represent the ongoing fight between the Jews and the Palestinians. The Bible contains the First Testament, which the Jews believe in, and the Palestinians don’t. The Jews believe that Israel is their holy land and rightfully theirs, the Palestinians have lived there for hundreds of years before they were kicked out in WWII and replaced with the Jews. This relates to our nation because we are trying to help solve the dispute between these two. President Bush has tried many times to form a treaty between these two, but has recently demanded that they solve their problems now. Messy Pictures   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I took these pictures to represent out economy. The first picture represents the state of the economy just after Sept. 11. The second picture shows the state of the economy currently, things are not quite as messy as the picture to show that the economy is cleaning up and getting better. The third picture is what I hope to see when I reopen this time capsule in a couple of months. Everything is cleared up, and all that is left is money. Birth Certificate   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I chose to include a copy of my birth certificate to represent the second American Taliban member found in Afghanistan. Yasser Esam Hamdi was found fighting with the Taliban and was also found to be and American citizen. He was born in America to Saudi parents, but moved back to Saudi Arabia when he was just a toddler. I put my birth certificate into the time capsule because that is what Hamdi had shown U.S. officials to prove he was an American. Just because he was born in America he has caused an uproar in the media and will face different charges than the non-citizens that committed the same crimes he did. Does this little paper make someone a citizen even though they lived their entire lives in another country and fought along side that country against America?

Sunday, August 18, 2019

Television Violence :: essays research papers

Television Violence   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Violence in television, is it turning our children into violent, destructive, and hateful toddlers. Yes or no? In today's society television plays such a big role in our everyday lives that it is hard to see if it effects our children's behavior. Television has the potential of being a very constructive learning tool, if used correctly. On the other hand if used in a destructive manner it could, hypothetically, turn our children and future leaders of tomorrow into deadly hate mongers. I believe that television does effect the way people think and behave.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In a survey given in 1978 at an unnamed college in Washington D.C., when asked if what was seen on T.V. effected the way they acted ,2% thought it did , 7% didn't know and ,91% didn't think it effected them at all(2). In 1993 a similar survey was given in London by the Broadcasting Standard Council( BSC ). When people were asked if they thought T.V. effected the way people behaved 41% said yes, 4% left without finishing the survey, and 55% said that they didn't think it effected the way people acted(14).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As seen in the survey the problem of television violence is being made more aware to the people of the world. The problem has also grown over the years to a more serious dilemma making the government start to try and solve the problem by initiating laws in which television stations must limit violence on T.V.(6). It is still not enough though the problem must be taken care of promptly before it changes society as a whole. If the problem is not taken care of swiftly then it could effect the future of the world by having violence rampage the streets of our towns.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the past when television was first invented it was a much happier time. people could walk on our streets without having to care if they were going to make it home alive. I'm not trying to say that television is the reason that society today is so dangerously violent, but as violence on television evolved so did the violence on our streets. In the past there were not as many violent T.V. shows if there were even any. Also T.V. was more of a family recreation, most families could only afford one T.V. set so when children watched T.V. they were supervised by their family making violence almost an impossible thing to see if parents were not interested. Today, there are an average of three televisions per household so it is harder for parents to make Television Violence :: essays research papers Television Violence   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Violence in television, is it turning our children into violent, destructive, and hateful toddlers. Yes or no? In today's society television plays such a big role in our everyday lives that it is hard to see if it effects our children's behavior. Television has the potential of being a very constructive learning tool, if used correctly. On the other hand if used in a destructive manner it could, hypothetically, turn our children and future leaders of tomorrow into deadly hate mongers. I believe that television does effect the way people think and behave.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In a survey given in 1978 at an unnamed college in Washington D.C., when asked if what was seen on T.V. effected the way they acted ,2% thought it did , 7% didn't know and ,91% didn't think it effected them at all(2). In 1993 a similar survey was given in London by the Broadcasting Standard Council( BSC ). When people were asked if they thought T.V. effected the way people behaved 41% said yes, 4% left without finishing the survey, and 55% said that they didn't think it effected the way people acted(14).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As seen in the survey the problem of television violence is being made more aware to the people of the world. The problem has also grown over the years to a more serious dilemma making the government start to try and solve the problem by initiating laws in which television stations must limit violence on T.V.(6). It is still not enough though the problem must be taken care of promptly before it changes society as a whole. If the problem is not taken care of swiftly then it could effect the future of the world by having violence rampage the streets of our towns.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the past when television was first invented it was a much happier time. people could walk on our streets without having to care if they were going to make it home alive. I'm not trying to say that television is the reason that society today is so dangerously violent, but as violence on television evolved so did the violence on our streets. In the past there were not as many violent T.V. shows if there were even any. Also T.V. was more of a family recreation, most families could only afford one T.V. set so when children watched T.V. they were supervised by their family making violence almost an impossible thing to see if parents were not interested. Today, there are an average of three televisions per household so it is harder for parents to make

Body Image - A Body Unknown :: essays research papers

It happened suddenly, surprisingly and overnight. One day I was a child and the next I was a sex object. Catching everyone from friends to teachers, parents to siblings off guard I had grown into a women and to some, a piece of female specimen that welcomed sexual advances, harassment and jokes. The one thing that has defined my womanhood more then anything else has been my breasts. I was thrown, unarmed into this situation at the tender age of 13, since then my views have changed. At 13 I viewed my buxomest body as a toy, an advantage, but after 5 years of being viewed as a sex object my views have changed. Changing my views ever further was reading Chapter 9 in Julia Woods Gendered Lives, this chapter dealt with the stereotypical roles of both sexes. One female role that applied directly to me was the sex object stereotype. Even after 5 years of continuous harassment I feel empowered and proud of my sexuality, I love my body, including my breasts. Wood described a sex object as so mething that was wrong, something that shouldn’t be a part of our society. Wood inadvertently made me feel like I was harming other women by embracing my sexuality. Wrong, I say, society has made me a sex object and I will do everything I can to make society deal with what they have created. I have always believed that my body was something to be proud of, something that I have treasured and praised throughout my life. For the first 6 months of my womanhood I felt I had been blessed. But, over the years I endured example after example that showed me there was something very, very wrong with the way society deals with sexuality. I did not see anything wrong when I was on an airplane with classmates and found them staring at my breasts. When I asked them what they were doing they simply replied, â€Å"waiting for turbulence.† That was funny, then. A couple months later I heard boys in the back row of my science class talking vulgarly about my body, naturally, I was upset, but chalked it up to immaturity and went on with my life. My freshman year of high school was the worst, so far. I didn’t feel like I could run in P.E. because the wrestlers, whom were all upperclassman would stand at the wall and yell elicit lines to me.

Saturday, August 17, 2019

The Importance of Literacy Attainment in Primary Education

Why the government are driving to ensure literacy is a main priority, especially reading by six years of age. The importance of this and the effects on the child, parents, teachers and society. Abstract This paper attempts to analyse why the government are working so hard at ensuring all our primary children are reading by the age of six. The importance of this and the effect on children, teachers and society. It is well documented that reading is one of the most important abilities students acquire as they progress through their early school years. It is the foundation for learning across all subjects, it can be used for recreation and for personal growth, and it equips young children with the ability to participate fully in their communities and the larger society (Campbell et al, 2001) We will look at key issues and research which underpin the government literacy policy and ways in which it can be improved in school. In particular we focus on the extensive research between poor literacy attainment and behavioural problems within the primary setting. We trace the early literacy support programmes and how they are practised in the class room setting. We address the theoretical views on how language acquisition and literacy are interwoven. We look at the role of the teacher and school, and how policy and practice can smooth the progress of child literacy attainment by age of 6. Contents Title and Abstracti Chapter 11 Introduction 1 Chapter 22 Literature Review2 Research in to reading difficulties and behavioural problems2 2. 1 How does this affect the individual, parents, teachers and society5 2. 2 What impact does it have on the school6 Chapter 38 Analysis and critique of evidence base8 What challenges does it impose on the teachers nd what effective teaching methods are considered best practice8 3. 1 How does policy compare the theoretical research10 3. 2 Why do other countries not deem early literacy as important as the UK12 Chapter 413 Conclusion13 Chapter 514 Recommendations14 Bibliography15 Appendices19 Chapter 1 Introduction David Cameron’s conservative educational policy put his party on a collision course with the teaching profession, when he announced in November 07 that virtually every child in the country will be expected to read by the age of six under a conservative government. Cameron wants pupils to sit a reading test at the end of year one, and the target will be for all-bar those with serious learning difficulties, to pass. Their policy to scrap the key stage one testing, which was quite controversial, has already been enforced. His policy to concentrate on the absolute foundation stone, which is an ability to read, has yet to be enforced. He wants 90% of our children reading by the age of six, the other 10% with acute special needs will be given additional help (BBC News Nov 2007). It is also been observed that most children will naturally read by the age of six, as they progress though the foundation stage and key stage one. The problem arises with the children that do not progress so easily. At the age of four and five most children are less aware of their peers, they are more interested in their own ability to do. Yet as they turn six their awareness of others and their abilities become more interesting. This in-turn leads to the less gifted children realising that they are not as bright as other children, which can leads to them feeling disheartened and inadequate. Consequently this may lead to the less gifted children giving up and becoming disengaged, which can cause behavioural problems. Therefore if the teacher can help these children early, perhaps the achievement gap will not be so noticeable, therefore prevent further elevation of problems that arise from detachment (Teacher TV 2009). It is though however that at such a young age, this behaviour is more easily managed and can be reversed (Moffitt 2006). Apparently there is a scheme behind David Cameron’s policy. As early prevention may hopefully alleviate the need for expensive intervention later on. Chapter 2 Literature Review Research in to reading difficulties and behavioural problems As it has frequently been observed that reading difficulties are accompanied by behaviour problems ( Berger, Yule & Rutter, 1975; Rutter, Tizeird & Whitmore, 1970). However, the exact nature of the relationship has been difficult to elucidate. One possibility is that behaviour problems arise as a consequence of the child's reaction to being a poor reader. An alternative possibility is that the behaviour problems pre-date the reading difficulty and affect the child's capacity to profit from reading instruction. A third possibility is that behaviour problems are related to reading difficulties because they share a common cause. A likely candidate for such a common cause would be home background. Of course, none of these possibilities are mutually exclusive. All could be partly true, with causal influences operating in both directions between reading difficulties and behaviour problems, as well as coming from home background. Several studies have attempted to sort out these various possibilities. Two major approaches have been employed. The first is to compare children who have both reading difficulties and behaviour problems with children who have reading difficulties alone and with children who have behaviour problems alone. If the children with both reading difficulties and behaviour problems are similar in background to those with reading difficulties alone, rather than those with behaviour problems alone, then it is likely that behaviour problems arise in part as a consequence of reading failure. Conversely, if the children with combined problems are more similar in background to those with behaviour problems, then it seems likely that the behaviour problems are the primary disorder. A number of studies have been reported using this approach with antisocial behaviour problems. Rutter and Yule (1970) studied 9 to 10 year-old children on the Isle of Wight. They found that the children with combined problems were more similar in background to those with reading difficulty alone and concluded that the reading difficulties produced the behaviour problems. Sturge 1982) research with 10 year old children from inner London school found that those with combined problems had background characteristics in between those of the two groups with pure disorders. She concluded that in some cases, behaviour problems might be secondary to reading difficulties, but that this could not be the complete explanation. However, Varlaam (1974) also used inner London children and did find those with com bined problems to be more similar to children with pure reading difficulties. Generically speaking, then, the evidence using this approach has been consistent with the view that behaviour problems arise as a consequence of reading failure. The second approach adopted by researchers on this issue is the longitudinal study. With this approach, children are followed over the first few years of schooling. Those who have developed reading difficulties after this time are then studied to see if their behaviour problems were present before formal reading instructions began or whether they developed only later as a reaction to reading failure. Two studies have used the longitudinal approach. McMichael (1979) assessed Scottish children for behaviour problems and reading readiness at school entry and then two years later assessed reading achievement and behaviour problems. She found that antisocial behaviour problems preceded the later reading difficulties. However, the children with behaviour problems at school entry also had lower reading readiness skills. On the other hand, McMichael found no evidence of an increase in behaviour problems as a consequence of reading failure. Stott (1981), working with Canadian children, followed them over the first three years of schooling. His findings concurred with those of McMichael (1979) in that children who developed reading difficulties were found to have behaviour problems at school entry. Stott attempted to rule out the possibility that home background was a common cause of both behaviour problems and reading difficulties by grouping the children according to living conditions. He concluded that on the whole it was behaviour problems which led to reading difficulties, home background was not ruled out as a contributing factor Moffatt 2006) of Royal Institute of London did an extensive study on twins and genetics relating to poor literacy and behaviour problems in primary. His research was surprising, as his results, found genetics did not explain it. He feels it’s an environmental process, such as what goes on in the classroom, and this is important because it can be changed. His researchers say their fi ndings indicate that academic intervention can have a positive effect on behaviour. Programmes that target either reading problems or behaviour problems during the pre-school and early primary school years are likely to produce changes in both areas, the research concludes. 2. 1 How does this affect the individual, parents, teachers and society There is a strong link to literacy attainment and confidence levels with regards to socio-economic advantaged children. The facilitation of these opportunities in the home (quiet reading environments, encouragement to read as a leisure activity, having plenty of books readily available, all enhance the development. The negative effects of reading problems are also well documented (Harris & Sipay, 1990). There is evidence that reading disability is associated with social, economic, and psychological problems. The Green Paper,’ Excellence for all children, meeting the special educational needs’(DfEE 1997), acknowledged the Literacy task force recommendations for developing strategies to enable parents and schools to work together in supporting the literacy achievement for children with SEN’ (DfEE 1997, section 13, p 15). With this in mind it is important that the teacher offers practical advice and methods of intervention to the parents. The effects of good prevention and early intervention, along with effective parenting support will help reduce the risk of antisocial behaviour later on (Rutter 1979 and Epstein 1986). By working with the parents, the teacher can construct a plan of action that will facilitate the child’s learning. If the parents are poor, the teacher can suggest the child takes books from school to read at home with the parent. If the parent is not able to read or is working all the time, alternatives arrangements can be made for other family members to help. By taking a pragmatic approach the teacher will hopefully be able to help both the child and their parent with play based activities that will help to raise the spirits of the child while they learn (Wadworths 1991). The role of the teacher in literature-based instruction is one of decision maker, mentor, and coach. The teacher plans and supports activities that allow children to do those things one naturally does with literature (Routman, 1991). This role includes planning themes, helping students activate the appropriate prior knowledge, and supporting students in reading and responding to the literature in appropriate ways (Martinez & Roser, 1991). In some instances the teacher plans and teaches mini-lessons using the literature as a model for helping students learn a needed strategy or skill (Trachtenberg, 1990). As a mentor, the teacher serves as a model for reading and writing, by reading aloud to students, the teacher models language for them. Through shared writing (McKenzie, 1985), the teacher models all aspects of writing, grammar, usage, and spelling. By supporting students with such activities as shared reading, literature discussion circles, and response activities, the teacher plays the role of coach (Cooper, 1993). 2. 2 What impact does it have on the school The principal’s challenge is to ensure that teachers have knowledge of current literacy best practices and access to the tools and resources needed to incorporate them. The principals need to have a working knowledge of literacy and the latest research findings about learning. They also need to ensure high quality instruction is supported by strong literacy frameworks. This may include the opportunity for peer coaching, classroom visitations, and literacy courses made available. Along side the practical courses the principal should ensure all her teachers opinions and ideas are valued, it is her role to support, motivate and encourage excellence in all her teaching staff. As teachers are a major part of a vision for literacy, competent, caring, and committed teachers create the conditions for learning literacy. To assure quality learning for all young children, all teachers need a foundational knowledge about literacy learning, and they need to apply that knowledge with sensitivity and skill in daily reading and writing instruction (Little 1999). a growing body of evidence suggests that reading problems are preventable for the vast majority of students who encounter difficulty in learning to read, if these students receive extra support in the form of an early intervention program (Goldenberg, 1994; Hiebert & Taylor, 1994; Reynolds, 1991). All of the reading recovery programs reflect a model of reading as an active, meaningful, constructive process. Before-reading activities are used to build or activate relevant background knowledge, concepts, and vocabulary. Students are taught to monitor their reading to ensure that what they are reading makes sense. They are taught strategies for correcting word recognition errors that detract from meaning, and they are given opportunities for reacting and responding to selections they have read. The texts they are asked to read are read for enjoyment and for information. Other activities are developed within a framework of reading for meaning. Because reading for meaning is the constant point of reference and because students in these programs need substantial help in building word-identification skills, the amount of time spent in discussing selections and in teacher questioning about the selection is kept to a minimum (Reynolds and Wheldall 2007). Chapter 3 Analysis and critique of evidence base What challenges does it impose on the teachers and what effective teaching methods are considered best practice The Curriculum is only as good as the people who offer it; practitioners play a major part in how a child leans and indeed what they learn. Gerhardts (2004 and Gopnik et al. , 2001) point out that for a child to develop effectively, it is important that the child has a warm loving, nurturing relationship with their teacher. Pedagogy on which teachers can draw on: All children need to acquire knowledge of the alphabetic system to become skilled readers. The most direct way for teachers to accomplish this is by providing explicit, systematic phonics instruction as one part of a comprehensive early reading program. Systematic and explicit phonics instruction is effective for all students in kindergarten and grade 1, regardless of socioeconomic status or the ease with which children learn to read. Along side this runs the different modes of reading and their advantages to the children. The term mode of reading refers to the different ways literature may be read aloud by the teacher, shared, guided by the teacher, cooperatively, or independently (Cooper, 1993). By changing the modes of reading used for different students, teachers are able to scaffold instruction and provide different levels of support for students in order to make them successful in reading a piece of literature (Cooper, 1993; Cullinan, 1992; Tunnell & Jacobs, 1989) Reading aloud is the single most influential factor in young children’s success in learning to read. It builds listening skills and vocabulary, aids reading comprehension, and develops a positive attitude toward reading. The teacher reads aloud daily to the whole class from a variety of children’s literature (fiction, nonfiction, and poetry). Shared Reading The children (or a small group of children) see the text, observe the teacher reading it with fluency and expression, and are invited to read along. Eyes on text with voice support are shared reading. Shared reading gives an authentic reason to practice skills and strategies. It creates a low risk environment and supplies support so children can join in and see themselves as readers. Guided reading The teacher selects books from a variety of genres for a small group with the expectation that all children can read the selection at an instructional level (90 to 94 percent) with prompts and questions. Guided reading provides the teacher with time to observe reading behaviours. It lets the teacher see the children functioning as readers and helps the teacher know what to stress next to move the children forward. The child selects and reads a variety of genres, an integral component of all levels of reading development. Independent reading provides practice and builds fluency and comprehension. It also demonstrates that reading is a priority. It is a time to assist a student in choosing appropriate books and allows them time in reading books of their choice. This helps ensure success and enjoyment (Cheminais 2005). scaffolding instruction Which is a concept that has grown out of research on how individuals learn (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1986; Vygotsky, 1978). This concept is based on the idea that at the beginning of learning, students need a great deal of support; gradually, this support is taken away to allow students to try their independence. This is what Pearson (1985) called the gradual release of responsibility. If students are unable to achieve independence, the teacher brings back the support system to help students experience success until they are able to achieve independence (Cooper, 1993). By using this method it is hopefully more clear-cut which children are in need of more support. Modeling Through Storybook Reading Recent research clarifies the extreme importance of reading storybooks to young children both at home and in school. Very early, children begin to imitate that reading — at first by relying exclusively on picture clues and memory. With increased experience they begin to focus on the information that print conveys (Snow, 1983; Sulzby, 1985; Teale, 1987). 3. 1 How does policy compare the theoretical research Most all theorists regardless of their particular thesis, believe that nature and nurture are interwoven in a child’s development. As Chomsky’s belief in nature still relies on nurturing for a child to gain its full developmental potential. As he wrote â€Å"If a child is placed in an impoverished environment, innate abilities simply will not develop, mature, and flourish (Taylor and Woods (2005). Similarly, a child brought up in an institution may have ample experience and nutrition, but still may not develop normally, either physically or mentally, if normal human interaction is lacking†(Chomsky 1987 p 2). So as Chomsky, believes the child is born with specific linguistic knowledge; Skinner, is portrayed as believing that language is entirely a matter of conditioning; Piaget, who sees language development as an outgrowth of general cognitive development; and Bruner, who emphasises the importance of the social/interactional context in which language development takes place. All have a common link as one depends on the other to reach its true potential (McCartney K and Phillips D 2006). Every Childs development does depend on their physical, cognitive, social and emotional self. And each of these components of self depends in part, on the changes that are taking place in other areas of development (Shaffer 1992). In reality, this is some times overlooked by practitioners in their assessments and evaluations of our children. As the measurements of achievements rears it ugly head, and some teachers focus on the bright and gifted while the less gifted child is left to his own devises. Most school want to have a good record of achievement and thus instruct their teachers to comply with their wish to get the best results for the school as possible. For some teachers this is a bitter pill to swallow as their time is taken up by helping the gifted children reach the highest targets, unavoidably leaves the less gifted neglected. Ability tracking, is yet another thorn for the less gifted children as this is where students are grouped by their ability, some theorists argue that this undermines the self-esteem of low ability students. As children are placed on the red, yellow, blue or green table depending on how clever they are perceived to be, by the teacher. Thus contributing to poor academic achievement and a high number of children feeling disheartened and demoralised. As we mentioned earlier how children of six are more aware of their peers, this only highlights the fact, leaving the less gifted children believing they are stupid, so they stop trying to achieve. Rutters research in 1983 suggests that mixed ability groups are more advantageous for children in primary education and ability tracking was more sensible in the latter senior years at secondary. Rutter 1983) put high emphasis on the teacher’s attitudes towards their pupils as being vitally important to the Childs achievements. Motivation, praise, encouragement and a high expectation are all crucial to ensuring a child succeeds (Pollard 1997). 3. 2 Why do other countries not deem early literacy as important as the UK Dr Ken Spencer (2007) from the Institute of Learning at University of Hull, fought back in response to all the critics of Cameron, as they protested why other countries did not deem this an important issue. He made them aware of the reason why Scandinavian children can start reading at six: their language has a transparent writing system, in which each sound has only one letter associated with it. With such a writing system all children read in about six month, no matter when they start school. His research evidence shows that learning to read English will always take three or more years longer, than most other languages. There is now indisputable evidence that complex combinations of letters and their irregular behaviour interact to make English the worst example of alphabetical language. Chapter 4 Conclusion Language and literacy development, like all human development, will be heavily determined by the nature of the environment, and may be severely limited unless the environment is appropriate. A stimulating environment is required to enable natural curiosity, intelligence, and creativity to develop, and to enable our biological capacities to unfold. The fact that the course of development is largely internally determined does not mean that it will proceed without care, stimulation, and opportunity (Penn 2005). Like Chomsky perceived â€Å"teaching is not like filling a cup with water, but ore like enabling a flower to grow in its own way; but it will not grow and flourish without proper care†(Chomsky 1897,p1). There is evidence that teachers whom have a holistic view with a child centred approach, can lead to a more fruitful interaction between the realms of theory and practice, which in turn will benefit the child’s learning and behaviour. The examples of rese arch in the fields of literacy and development discussed, show how work which was originally theoretically motivated can lead to practical recommendations for intervention. Chapter 5 Recommendations It does appear that there is extensive evidence to suggest that poor teacher may have a lot to do with poor literacy attainment and behavioural issues. Perhaps David Cameron quest for literacy attainment will only be achieved once the teaching pedagogy improves. Adults, like children, learn better when they perceive a need for the information they are learning. Staff development should provide teachers with authentic, meaningful tasks that relate to improving classroom instruction. Helping teachers improve instruction must focus on more than just going through the motions of teaching. Showers, Joyce, and Bennett (1987) analyzed more than two hundred research studies on staff development and concluded that a major factor in how teachers teach is how they think about teaching. Staff development should help teachers increase their knowledge and learn to think about their instructional decisions. Having a basic level of knowledge about an innovation is important in helping teachers â€Å"buy in† to it (Showers et al. , 1987). Over the last fifteen years the emphasis on staff development has evolved in many ways, from workshop sessions to more comprehensive, collaborative approaches that focus on the individual needs and concerns of teachers (Waxman, 1987). Hopefully by improving our pedagogy and focusing on a more holistic child centred environment all children and teachers will benefit. The research literature to date has suggested pathways for us to take. It is up to us as a society to make the journey. 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